Microsoft office 2013 word chapter 4 multiple choice free.Course Help Online

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations computation automatically. Modern computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. A computer system is a “complete” computer that includes the hardware , operating system main software , and peripheral equipment needed and used for “full” operation. This term may also refer to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer network or computer cluster.

A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems. Simple special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls are included, as are factory devices like industrial robots and computer-aided design , as well as general-purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices like smartphones. Computers power the Internet , which links billions of other computers and users.

Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the abacus have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times.

Early in the Industrial Revolution , some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The first semiconductor transistors in the late s were followed by the silicon -based MOSFET MOS transistor and monolithic integrated circuit IC chip technologies in the late s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the s.

The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace as predicted by Moore’s law , leading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries. Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element , typically a central processing unit CPU in the form of a microprocessor , along with some type of computer memory , typically semiconductor memory chips.

The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joystick , etc.

Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. According to the Oxford English Dictionary , the first known use of computer was in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by the English writer Richard Brathwait : “I haue [ sic ] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.

The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the s, meaning ‘one who calculates’; this is an “agent noun from compute v.

The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean ” ‘calculating machine’ of any type is from Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with fingers.

The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, etc. The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house , a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.

The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer , according to Derek J. It was discovered in in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera , between Kythera and Crete , and has been dated to approximately c. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century.

Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra , the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer [9] [10] and gear -wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan , Persia in The sector , a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around — by the English clergyman William Oughtred , shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm.

It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions.

Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

In the s, Pierre Jaquet-Droz , a Swiss watchmaker , built a mechanical doll automaton that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced.

In effect, it could be mechanically “programmed” to read instructions. In —, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar machine , which, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 that is, 1 BC to AD , keeping track of leap years and varying day length.

The tide-predicting machine invented by the Scottish scientist Sir William Thomson in was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.

The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration , used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In , Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.

Charles Babbage , an English mechanical engineer and polymath , originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the ” father of the computer “, [17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine , designed to aid in navigational calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine , was possible.

The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards , a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit , control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops , and integrated memory , making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete.

The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage , completed a simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit the mill in He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers , which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The differential analyser , a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in by James Thomson , the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson. The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer , built by H.

This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and aircraft control systems.

By , the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine.

This was the Torpedo Data Computer , which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well. Early digital computers were electromechanical ; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2 , created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in , was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer. In , Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world’s first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer.

It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage ‘s earlier design , using a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. Zuse’s next computer, the Z4 , became the world’s first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich.

Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers , working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange.

Experimental equipment that he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. The German encryption machine, Enigma , was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women. Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.

Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubes , but Mark II with 2, valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process. Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.

Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems.

It could add or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes. Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers.

 
 

 

Microsoft office 2013 word chapter 4 multiple choice free

 

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Afro-American gospel: authentic gospel? You are at the right place! Your Gospel Team is a gospel choir, the first one in Switzerland, specialized in the animation of the weddings, concerts, The machine is in good working order. Microsoft Office for Windows 1. Version 1. Microsoft Office 3. Microsoft Office 4. Microsoft Office 95 was released on August 24, Software version numbers were altered again to create parity across the suite — every program was called version 7.

Office for Windows 95 was designed as a fully bit version to match Windows 95 although some apps not bundled as part of the suite at that time – Publisher for Windows 95 and Project 95 had some bit components even though their main program executable was bit. Office 95 was available in two versions, Office 95 Standard and Office 95 Professional. The standard version consisted of Word 7. The professional edition contained all of the items in the standard version plus Access 7.

The logo used in Office 95 returns in Office 97, and XP. Microsoft Office 98 Macintosh Edition also uses a similar logo. Microsoft Office 97 Office 8. Office 97 also featured Natural Language Systems and grammar checking. Office 97 was the first version of Office to include the Office Assistant.

In Brazil , it was also the first version to introduce the Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation. With this release, the accompanying apps, Project 98 and Publisher 98 also transitioned to fully bit versions. Exchange Server , a mail server and calendaring server developed by Microsoft , is the server for Outlook after discontinuing Exchange Client. Microsoft Office Office 9. It also introduced a new security feature, built around digital signatures , to diminish the threat of macro viruses.

The Microsoft Script Editor , an optional tool that can edit script code, was also introduced in Office Office also introduces PhotoDraw , a raster and vector imaging program, as well as Web Components , Visio , and Vizact. The Registration Wizard, a precursor to Microsoft Product Activation , remained in Brazil and was also extended to Australia and New Zealand, though not for volume-licensed editions.

Microsoft Office XP Office Office XP introduced the Safe Mode feature, which allows applications such as Outlook to boot when it might otherwise fail by bypassing a corrupted registry or a faulty add-in. Binder was replaced by Unbind, a program that can extract the contents of a Binder file. Office XP includes integrated voice command and text dictation capabilities, as well as handwriting recognition.

It was the first version to require Microsoft Product Activation worldwide and in all editions as an anti-piracy measure, which attracted widespread controversy. Microsoft Office Office It featured a new logo. It is the first version to use new, more colorful icons. Office introduces three new programs to the Office product lineup: InfoPath , a program for designing, filling, and submitting electronic structured data forms; OneNote , a note-taking program for creating and organizing diagrams, graphics, handwritten notes, recorded audio, and text; and the Picture Manager graphics software which can open, manage, and share digital images.

SharePoint , a web collaboration platform codenamed as Office Server, has integration and compatibility with Office and so on.

Office ‘s new features include a new graphical user interface called the Fluent User Interface, [] replacing the menus and toolbars that have been the cornerstone of Office since its inception with a tabbed toolbar , known as the Ribbon ; new XML-based file formats called Office Open XML; and the inclusion of Groove , a collaborative software application.

Office Communicator , an instant messaging and videotelephony application, was renamed into Lync This is the first version to ship in bit and bit variants. Microsoft Office featured a new logo, which resembled the logo, except in gold, and with a modification in shape. A technical preview of Microsoft Office Build Microsoft Outlook has received the most pronounced changes so far; for example, the Metro interface provides a new visualization for scheduled tasks.

PowerPoint includes more templates and transition effects, and OneNote includes a new splash screen. On May 16, , new images of Office 15 were revealed, showing Excel with a tool for filtering data in a timeline, the ability to convert Roman numerals to Arabic numerals, and the integration of advanced trigonometric functions.

In Word, the capability of inserting video and audio online as well as the broadcasting of documents on the Web were implemented. On January 22, , the Microsoft Office blog announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office , was in development. On May 4, , a public preview of Microsoft Office was released. Users who had the Professional Plus subscription have the new Skype for Business app. Microsoft Teams , a team collaboration program meant to rival Slack , was released as a separate product for business and enterprise users.

On September 26, , Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office , was in development. On February 18, , Microsoft announced that the next version of the suite for Windows desktop, Office , was in development.

Microsoft has noted that some features are added to Office for Mac before they appear in Windows versions, such as Office for Mac ‘s Office Project Gallery and PowerPoint Movie feature, which allows users to save presentations as QuickTime movies. Microsoft Office 1. Excel 4. Version 4. It introduced the Internet Explorer 4. It also was the first version to support QuickTime movies. It required a PowerPC processor. This version introduced Entourage, an e-mail client that included information management tools such as a calendar, an address book, task lists and notes.

X ended on January 9, , after the release of the final update, Microsoft Office for Mac was released on May 11, It is the final version of Office to be built exclusively for PowerPC and to officially support G3 processors, as its sequel lists a G4 , G5 , or Intel processor as a requirement. This led Microsoft to extend support for Office from October 13, , to January 10, VBA functionality was reintroduced in Office , which is only compatible with Intel processors.

Microsoft Office for Mac was released on January 15, It was the only Office for Mac suite to be compiled as a universal binary , being the first to feature native Intel support and the last to feature PowerPC support for G4 and G5 processors, although the suite is unofficially compatible with G3 processors. Benchmarks suggested that compared to its predecessor, Office ran at similar speeds on Intel machines and slower speeds on PowerPC machines.

Nevertheless, five months after it was released, Microsoft said that Office was “selling faster than any previous version of Office for Mac in the past 19 years” and affirmed “its commitment to future products for the Mac. Microsoft Office for Mac was released on October 26, ,. Microsoft OneNote for Mac was released on March 17, It marks the company’s first release of the note-taking software on the Mac. Microsoft Outlook for Mac debuted on October 31, It requires a paid Office subscription, meaning that traditional Office retail or volume licenses cannot activate this version of Outlook.

On that day, Microsoft confirmed that it would release the next version of Office for Mac in late Despite dropping support for older versions of OS X and only keeping support for bit-only versions of OS X, these versions of OneNote and Outlook are bit applications like their predecessors. A non—Office edition of Office was made available as a one-time purchase option on September 22, Support for markets and 33 languages was added gradually over several weeks.

With steady updates throughout subsequent releases of Windows Mobile, Office Mobile was rebranded as its current name after the release of the Windows Mobile 5. In June , Microsoft announced a new version of the office suite, Office Mobile It became available as “Office Mobile 6.

However, “Office Mobile 6. It is a pre-installed feature in subsequent releases of Windows Mobile 6 devices. On August 12, , it was announced that Office Mobile would also be released for the Symbian platform as a joint agreement between Microsoft and Nokia. In Windows Phone, users can access and edit documents directly off of their SkyDrive or Office accounts in a dedicated Office hub. The operating system also includes OneNote, although not as a part of the Office Hub.

Lync is not included, but can be downloaded as standalone app from the Windows Phone Store free of charge. In March , Microsoft released Office Lens , a scanner app that enhances photos. Photos are then attached to an Office document. On March 27, , Microsoft launched Office for iPad , the first dedicated version of Office for tablet computers. In addition, Microsoft made the Android and iOS versions of Office Mobile free for ‘home use’ on phones, although the company still requires an Office subscription for using Office Mobile for business use.

As part of this announcement, Microsoft also split up its single “Office suite” app on iPhones into separate, standalone apps for Word, Excel and PowerPoint, released a revamped version of Office Mobile for iPhone, added direct integration with Dropbox , and previewed future versions of Office for other platforms. Office for Android tablets was released on January 29, , [] following a successful two-month preview period.

Tablets with screen sizes larger than Optimized for smartphones and tablets, they are universal apps that can run on both Windows and Windows for phones, and share similar underlying code. A simplified version of Outlook was also added to the suite. They will be bundled with Windows 10 mobile devices , and available from the Windows Store for the PC version of Windows Smaller tablets and phones will have most editing features for free.

This app combines Word, Excel, and PowerPoint into a single app and introduces new capabilities as making quick notes, signing PDFs, scanning QR codes, and transferring files. On July 13, , Microsoft announced at its Worldwide Partners Conference in New Orleans that Microsoft Office reached its “Technical Preview” development milestone and features of Office Web Apps were demonstrated to the public for the first time.

Office beta testers were not given access to Office Web Apps at this date, and it was announced that it would be available for testers during August On October 22, , Microsoft announced the release of new features including co-authoring, performance improvements and touch support.

On November 6, , Microsoft announced further new features including real-time co-authoring and an Auto-Save feature in Word replacing the save button. However, with the impending launch of Windows 8 and its increased use of cloud services, Microsoft dropped the Windows Live brand to emphasize that these services would now be built directly into Windows and not merely be a “bolted on” add-on.

Critics had criticized the Windows Live brand for having no clear vision, as it was being applied to an increasingly broad array of unrelated services. The product is now Office, and may be referred to as “Office for the web” or “Office in a browser”. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. This is the latest accepted revision , reviewed on 9 August Suite of office software. List of languages. Microsoft Office for Mobile apps on Windows See also: List of Microsoft Office programs.

Main article: Microsoft Office password protection. Timeline of Microsoft Office for Windows. Office Office XP. Updated Spent standard support Remaining standard support Spent extended support Remaining extended support. Timeline of Microsoft Office for Mac. Office for Mac Office for Mac. Office v. Office 98 Macintosh Edition. Old version. Older version, still maintained. Latest version. Latest preview version. Future release.

Main article: History of Microsoft Office. Main article: Microsoft Office The Verge. Retrieved October 5, July 17, Archived from the original on November 7, Retrieved June 25, Archived from the original on February 15, Retrieved February 25, Google Play. Archived from the original on March 24, Retrieved April 10, Archived from the original on March 9, Archived from the original on February 20, App Store.

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CBS Interactive. Archived from the original on August 15, Retrieved August 28, Archived from the original on March 11, In , Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3 , the world’s first working electromechanical programmable , fully automatic digital computer. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers.

Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage ‘s earlier design , using a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. Zuse’s next computer, the Z4 , became the world’s first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich.

Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog.

The engineer Tommy Flowers , working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.

The German encryption machine, Enigma , was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women. Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubes , but Mark II with 2, valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.

Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.

Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes.

Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers.

Turing proposed a simple device that he called “Universal Computing machine” and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions program stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable.

The fundamental concept of Turing’s design is the stored program , where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.

Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing-complete , which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. A stored-program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions a program that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his paper.

In , Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His report “Proposed Electronic Calculator” was the first specification for such a device. The Manchester Baby was the world’s first stored-program computer. Grace Hopper was the first person to develop a compiler for programming language. The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1 , the world’s first commercially available general-purpose computer.

At least seven of these later machines were delivered between and , one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam. The LEO I computer became operational in April [49] and ran the world’s first regular routine office computer job. The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in John Bardeen and Walter Brattain , while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs , built the first working transistor , the point-contact transistor , in , which was followed by Shockley’s bipolar junction transistor in Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat.

Junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.

However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a mass-production basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. At the University of Manchester , a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.

However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory , so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit IC. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence , Geoffrey W.

Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D. Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon , whereas Kilby’s chip was made of germanium. Noyce’s monolithic IC was fabricated using the planar process , developed by his colleague Jean Hoerni in early In turn, the planar process was based on Mohamed M.

Atalla’s work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late s. The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor , [84] [85] and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term “microprocessor”, it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the Intel , [86] designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology, [84] along with Ted Hoff , Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel.

System on a Chip SoCs are complete computers on a microchip or chip the size of a coin. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly above known as Package on package or below on the opposite side of the circuit board the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals don’t have to travel long distances.

Since ENIAC in , computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs Such as the Snapdragon being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power.

The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50 lb 23 kg IBM was an early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in.

The first laptops , such as the Grid Compass , removed this requirement by incorporating batteries — and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the s.

These smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market. The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects.

Circuits , computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory RAM , motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and “mice” input devices are all hardware. These parts are interconnected by buses , often made of groups of wires. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a “1”, and when off it represents a “0” in positive logic representation.

The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:.

The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:. The control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer’s various components; it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter , a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. The control system’s function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:.

Since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as “jumps” and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow.

The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program , and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer , which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen. Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor. The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.

Some can operate only on whole numbers integers while others use floating point to represent real numbers , albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation.

An ALU may also compare numbers and return Boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other “is 64 greater than 65? These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing Boolean logic. Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.

A computer’s memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered “address” and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to “put the number into the cell numbered ” or to “add the number that is in cell to the number that is in cell and put the answer into cell Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease.

Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software’s responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers. In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used typically, two, four or eight. When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two’s complement notation.

Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically.

Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed.

As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units greatly increases the computer’s speed. ROM is typically used to store the computer’s initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely.

In embedded computers , which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware , because it is notionally more like hardware than software.

Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary. In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories , which are slower than registers but faster than main memory.

Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer’s part.

Hard disk drives , floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. A era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry. While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.

This is achieved by multitasking i. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running “at the same time”.

Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.

This method of multitasking is sometimes termed “time-sharing” since each program is allocated a “slice” of time in turn. Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a “time slice” until the event it is waiting for has occurred.

This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss. Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as supercomputers , mainframe computers and servers.

Multiprocessor and multi-core multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result. Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers. Such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.

Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation , graphics rendering , and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called ” embarrassingly parallel ” tasks. Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built.

Computer software includes computer programs , libraries and related non-executable data , such as online documentation or digital media. It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications. The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed.

That is to say that some type of instructions the program can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation.

Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.

This section applies to most common RAM machine —based computers. In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer’s memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there.

These are called “jump” instructions or branches. Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event.

Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that “remembers” the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.

Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met.

This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses.